Years into the large-scale shift towards personalised digital marketing, many people recognise a familiar experience. You search for a product online or casually mention it in conversation, and before long, advertisements for that exact item begin appearing across apps, websites, and social media feeds. While the technology behind this level of targeting can be impressive, the experience itself often feels intrusive rather than helpful. Instead of creating convenience, it can leave users with a lingering sense of discomfort.

This reaction is at the heart of recent research led by marketing scholar Wayne Hoyer at the McCombs School of Business, University of Texas at Austin. His work suggests that when personalisation goes beyond what consumers consider acceptable, it triggers a distinct emotional response described as “creepiness”. Rather than improving engagement, this feeling can have the opposite effect, significantly reducing a person’s willingness to make a purchase. What may seem like effective targeting from a technical perspective can therefore become counterproductive from a psychological one.

The research proposes that this sense of unease does not come from digital marketing itself, but from how individuals interpret it. The emotional response develops in two stages. First, consumers experience ambiguity, questioning how and why they are seeing a particular advertisement. This is followed by a more troubling interpretation, where the message is perceived as evidence of surveillance. When people begin to feel as though they are being watched or tracked too closely, the emotional reaction intensifies and becomes negative.

To explore this further, researchers conducted multiple studies involving around 1,800 participants. Some individuals were exposed to highly targeted advertisements, such as seeing promotions for products shortly after discussing them, while others were shown non-targeted ads. Participants were then asked to evaluate their level of discomfort and explain their reactions. The findings showed that feelings of ambiguity and perceived surveillance accounted for the majority of reported unease. Personalised ads were also found to significantly increase the sensation of being monitored, and as these feelings grew stronger, willingness to purchase declined noticeably.

The studies also revealed that certain individuals are more sensitive to these effects than others. People who are generally sceptical of advertising or concerned about the reach of technology were more likely to interpret targeted messaging as intrusive. For these groups in particular, personalisation quickly shifts from being a useful feature to an invasion of privacy. This highlights an important challenge for marketers, as the same strategy can produce very different reactions depending on the audience.

Attempts to reduce these negative feelings have shown limited success. Strategies such as increasing transparency about data use, offering incentives, or including positive imagery in advertisements can soften reactions slightly. Still, they do not fully eliminate the sense of discomfort once it has been triggered. As a result, the research suggests that prevention is far more effective than correction. Designing marketing approaches that avoid creating ambiguity or signalling excessive surveillance is crucial. Although it is possible that consumers may become more accepting of personalisation over time, marketers must carefully balance innovation with respect for privacy to avoid pushing their audiences away.

More information: Alisa Petrova et al, The Phenomenon of Creepiness in a Digital Marketing World, Psychology and Marketing. DOI: 10.1002/mar.70089

Journal information: Psychology and Marketing Provided by University of Texas at Austin