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Vaccine-Hesitant Americans More Receptive to ‘Freedom Framing’ Than Mandates, New Study Suggests

Researchers at the University of Houston are applying ideas from marketing science to public health, suggesting that the way vaccines are described may influence whether people are willing to receive them. Their work focuses on vaccine hesitancy in the United States. It explores whether public health messaging could be more effective if it better reflects the values and concerns of different groups of people.

During the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine hesitancy in the U.S. reached nearly 30%, according to one study. Concerns ranged from lack of confidence in the vaccines to complacency and distrust of public health recommendations. Marketing professors Parthasarathy Krishnamurthy and Ye Hu from the C. T. Bauer College of Business believed many public health campaigns shared a common weakness: they often relied on broad messaging aimed at the general public rather than addressing the different perspectives and motivations of individuals.

Krishnamurthy said vaccination can be viewed as a behavioural challenge linked to marketplace decision-making. He explained that people are not uniform in their beliefs, opinions, or past experiences with vaccines, and that one of the central principles of marketing is recognising that different people respond differently to the same message. According to the researchers, campaigns that fail to consider these differences may miss opportunities to connect with vaccine-hesitant individuals.

In research published in the medical journal JAMA Network, the researchers examined how different descriptions of vaccination influenced people’s reactions. Their survey-based experiment involved more than 900 Americans who were asked to evaluate hypothetical vaccine options. The vaccine descriptions emphasised different themes, including complying with government recommendations, protecting others through social responsibility, and preserving personal autonomy, which the researchers described as “freedom framing.”

The findings showed that reactions depended largely on participants’ level of concern about vaccines. Among people with low levels of concern, the framing of the message did not make a significant difference. However, among participants with higher levels of concern, willingness to vaccinate increased when vaccines were described as supporting personal autonomy and individual choice. The difference was about six percentage points compared with other forms of messaging.

The researchers emphasised that scientific evidence about vaccines remains important, but they also argued that communication strategies can shape public responses. Krishnamurthy noted that some people prioritise protecting their health, while others place greater importance on personal freedom and autonomy. These values do not always align, and ignoring them may affect vaccine acceptance. While the current study relied on survey responses, the researchers say the next step will involve behavioural studies to determine whether “freedom framing” can increase actual vaccination rates in real-world settings.

More information: Parthasarathy Krishnamurthy et al, COVID-19 Vaccine Framing and Acceptance Among Adults Who Are Vaccine Hesitant, JAMA Network Open. DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.4114

Journal information: JAMA Network Open Provided by University of Houston

Brexit Unleashed Economic Uncertainty Across Britain and Europe

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Brexit triggered widespread financial volatility across European markets, revealing how deeply interconnected the continent’s financial systems had become, according to new research from the University of Surrey. Using more than two decades of stock market data from across the European Union, Surrey researchers found that Brexit-related political events significantly intensified volatility spillovers between European financial markets. Political announcements, negotiations and leadership changes throughout the Brexit process repeatedly sparked financial reactions that spread across the EU.

The researchers argue that Brexit was not a single economic shock but an extended period of uncertainty. Major political milestones — from the 2016 referendum result to parliamentary votes and trade negotiations — continually reshaped investor expectations and transmitted new signals through European financial markets. The study suggests that the prolonged political process surrounding Brexit created repeated waves of instability that influenced investor confidence and market behaviour across Europe.

The analysis also showed that larger financial markets tended to transmit volatility to smaller ones during periods of heightened uncertainty. France emerged as the most persistent source of volatility spillovers across the EU throughout the Brexit period. At the same time, the UK acted as a major transmitter during the early stages of negotiations. Smaller markets, including Ireland, Portugal and Spain, were among those most affected by the turbulence generated during key Brexit developments.

To examine how these shocks travelled through the financial system, the Surrey team analysed daily market data from EU countries between 2000 and 2021. The researchers combined advanced volatility modelling techniques with a newly developed “Brexit intensity” index designed to track around 500 political and economic developments linked to Brexit. Each event was weighted according to the scale of financial market reactions, including movements in stock returns, exchange rates and market volatility indicators.

Vasileios Pappas, lead author of the study, explained that Brexit represented a prolonged sequence of political shocks that financial markets in both the UK and continental Europe had to absorb in real time. The research demonstrated that major political announcements and leadership shifts repeatedly sent signals through European markets, extending uncertainty far beyond Britain and reinforcing the cross-border nature of financial risk.

The findings also suggest that Brexit weakened financial integration across Europe. Following the 2016 referendum, volatility transmission between EU markets declined sharply, indicating that markets increasingly reacted more independently as political uncertainty intensified. Dr Pappas noted that financial markets remain closely interconnected across borders, meaning uncertainty in one country rarely stays contained. The study concludes that understanding how financial shocks spread through interconnected markets could help policymakers and institutions better anticipate risks and strengthen financial stability during future political crises.

More information: Marwan Izzeldin et al, Brexit and Its Impact on EU Financial Markets, International Journal of Finance & Economics. DOI: 10.1002/ijfe.70149

Journal information: International Journal of Finance & Economics Provided by University of Surrey

The Impact of Gasoline Prices on Electric Vehicle Usage

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Rising gasoline prices may play an important role in shaping how drivers use plug-in hybrid vehicles. A recent study published in the Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists examined the relationship between fuel costs and hybrid vehicle behaviour, finding that drivers are more likely to rely on electric charging when gasoline prices increase. The study, titled “Fueling Electrification: The Impact of Gas Prices on Hybrid Car Usage,” was conducted by Laura Grigolon, Eunseong Park, and Kevin Remmy. Their findings highlight how fuel price fluctuations can influence not only vehicle purchasing decisions but also the day-to-day environmental performance of hybrid cars.

The authors note that plug-in hybrid vehicles have become increasingly popular in many countries as governments and consumers seek ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change. Public policies in several regions have encouraged this transition through financial incentives such as purchase rebates, tax credits, and subsidies designed to make hybrid and electric vehicles more affordable. These measures have helped accelerate adoption rates and support broader climate goals. However, while governments often provide incentives for purchasing hybrid vehicles, fewer policies focus on how these vehicles are actually used after they are bought. As a result, many drivers may not fully utilise the electric capabilities of their vehicles.

To better understand hybrid driving behaviour, the researchers analysed detailed micro-level data collected from Spritmonitor, a German application that allows drivers to record fuel consumption, mileage, and charging habits. Their analysis revealed that, on average, only about 32% of the total driving distance in plug-in hybrid vehicles was completed using electric power. Although electricity is frequently less expensive than gasoline, many drivers still depend heavily on the gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. The researchers suggest that this pattern may be explained by what they describe as a “hassle cost” associated with charging. Factors such as locating charging stations, waiting for batteries to recharge, or remembering to plug in the vehicle may discourage drivers from consistently using electric mode.

The study found that changes in fuel prices can significantly alter this behaviour. When gasoline prices rise, drivers appear more willing to overcome the inconvenience associated with charging and make greater use of electric power. According to the authors, a 10% increase in fuel prices was associated with an increase of roughly 1.5 percentage points in electric-mode driving. While this change may appear modest, it represents an important behavioural response that can have broader environmental implications when applied across large numbers of vehicles. The findings suggest that fuel prices can indirectly encourage cleaner transportation practices by motivating drivers to reduce gasoline consumption and rely more heavily on electricity.

These results are particularly important because plug-in hybrid vehicles are often promoted as environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional gasoline-powered cars. However, the environmental benefits of hybrids depend heavily on how they are used in practice. If drivers rarely charge their vehicles and primarily rely on gasoline engines, the expected reductions in emissions may not fully materialise. The authors therefore argue that policymakers and researchers should pay closer attention not only to vehicle adoption rates, but also to actual usage patterns. Understanding how economic factors such as fuel prices influence charging behaviour may help governments design more effective transportation and environmental policies as societies continue working to reduce emissions and transition toward cleaner energy systems.

More information: Laura Grigolon et al, Fueling Electrification: The Impact of Gas Prices on Hybrid Car Usage, Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists. DOI: 10.1086/739663

Journal information: Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists Provided by University of Chicago Press Journals

Lack of Information Fuels Misinformation

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Capturing public attention has become essential for communicating science, but making scientific content engaging can come at a cost. Information designed to attract clicks, shares or views is often simplified, leaving out details that help readers fully understand what a study actually found. As a result, people may walk away with inaccurate impressions even when the information they read is technically correct. The challenge is not necessarily the spread of falsehoods, but the loss of context and nuance that can shape public understanding in misleading ways.

That tension is at the centre of new research led by Marta Serra-Garcia from the University of California, San Diego Rady School of Management. Published in the American Economic Review, the study explored how incentives in today’s online attention economy influence the communication of scientific findings and what readers ultimately learn from them. Serra-Garcia’s research suggests that misinformation does not always stem from deliberate deception. In many cases, incomplete information alone can lead readers to draw inaccurate conclusions.

Importantly, the study found that summaries designed to attract attention were not more likely to contain factual errors. Instead, they tended to provide less information overall, particularly about research methods, sample sizes and study limitations. According to Serra-Garcia, the issue is more complicated than simply dismissing attention-grabbing content as “clickbait.” Engaging headlines and summaries can encourage curiosity and motivate people to learn about science. However, the same techniques that increase engagement can also unintentionally contribute to misunderstandings when essential details are omitted.

One example highlighted in the study involved research showing that a compound in broccoli reduced cancer cell growth in mice. Removing the phrase “in mice” dramatically changes how readers may interpret the finding, making it appear more directly applicable to human health than the evidence supports. Serra-Garcia noted that adding those two words is simple. Yet, even small additions that reduce excitement or certainty may lower the likelihood that people will click on or share the content. The research suggests that these seemingly minor omissions can significantly influence public interpretation of scientific results.

To examine these effects, Serra-Garcia conducted a large, multi-stage experimental study involving freelance writers and thousands of participants. In the first stage, 149 freelance writers produced nearly 600 summaries of real scientific studies on topics including cancer, vaccines, sleep and climate change. Writers received different instructions depending on the experimental condition. Some were asked to prioritise accurate communication, while others were encouraged to write summaries that would attract attention and generate clicks or shares online.

In the second stage, more than 3,700 participants read the summaries under varying conditions, including whether they had the opportunity to click through for additional information. The findings were consistent across experiments. Attention-driven summaries were generally shorter, easier to read and more engaging, but they also contained fewer important details. Readers who relied only on the summaries demonstrated lower levels of understanding, with knowledge scores dropping by approximately six to seven percentage points. They were also more likely to make incorrect assumptions, such as believing findings applied directly to humans or represented firm medical recommendations. Even when participants had access to additional information, most chose not to seek it out, reflecting broader patterns observed on social media where users frequently share articles without reading beyond headlines or summaries.

The same pattern emerged when the writing process involved artificial intelligence rather than humans. When a large language model was instructed to maximise attention and engagement, it also produced summaries with less detail and context. This suggests the problem is driven less by individual writers and more by the incentives built into digital communication systems that reward attention above completeness. For Serra-Garcia, the findings raise an important question for scientists, journalists and institutions alike: how can scientific information remain engaging and accessible without sacrificing the details necessary for readers to understand the full picture accurately?

More information: Marta Serra-Garcia, The Attention-Information Trade-Off, American Economic Review. DOI: 10.1257/aer.20240850

Journal information: American Economic Review Provided by University of California – San Diego

Social Media Gambling Promotions Reach Men Far More Frequently Than Women

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Gambling companies are reaching young men—the group most likely to experience problem gambling—on social media at more than twice the rate of women, according to a new study. The findings point to a striking imbalance in who sees gambling promotions online, raising concerns about how digital advertising may be amplifying risks among already vulnerable populations.

Researchers led by the University of Cambridge analysed 411 advertisements from 88 licensed gambling operators in Ireland. They found that young men were reached 2.3 times more often than women across Meta platforms, including Facebook and Instagram, even when adverts were not explicitly targeted by gender. Adults aged 25 to 34 were the most exposed group, accounting for over a third of all unique accounts reached—more than 6.2 million impressions. The results were published in the Journal of Behavioral Addictions.

To carry out the study, the researchers used the Meta Ad Library, which provides data on who sees advertisements under the Digital Services Act. This regulation requires major online platforms operating in EU countries to disclose advertising activity and demographic reach, offering new opportunities to examine how marketing is distributed across different groups.

The findings come as Ireland introduces stricter controls under the Gambling Regulation Act 2024, which took effect in March 2025. The law restricts most social media gambling advertising unless users actively opt in to receive it. However, gambling promotion remains widespread in the United Kingdom and across much of Europe. It has expanded rapidly in the United States, fuelled in part by platforms such as Polymarket and Kalshi.

Lead author Elena Petrovskaya noted that relatively few adverts directly targeted men, yet they still disproportionately reached young male audiences. This suggests that platform dynamics—such as algorithmic delivery or engagement patterns—may be driving exposure towards those already at higher risk. Previous studies have shown that greater exposure to gambling advertising is associated with more favourable attitudes, increased participation, and a higher likelihood of harm, with evidence pointing to a “dose–response” effect.

The scale of exposure identified in the study is substantial. One advert from Betfair reached more than 1.32 million unique accounts, roughly a quarter of Ireland’s population. Across all adverts analysed, 12.6 million men were reached compared with 5.4 million women, and no adverts targeted women exclusively. Co-author Deirdre Leahy said the findings establish an important baseline for evaluating the impact of new regulations, while also highlighting the need for greater transparency and accountability in how potentially harmful products are marketed online.

More information: Elena Petrovskaya et al, Gambling adverts on social media reach 2.3 times more men than women: Using the Meta Ad library to assess gambling advertising in Ireland, Journal of Behavioral Addictions. DOI: 10.1556/2006.2025.00484

Journal information: Journal of Behavioral Addictions Provided by University of Cambridge

Expanded Cyber Disclosure Draws Limited Investor Response

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Companies in the United States are reporting on cybersecurity in greater detail than before, yet financial markets appear largely unmoved. A new study by the University of Vaasa and Aalto University finds that mandatory cybersecurity disclosure requirements have not triggered meaningful responses from investors or stock analysts. While firms are providing more information, the anticipated external impact on market behaviour has not materialised, suggesting that the most immediate effects are occurring within organisations rather than in the broader financial system.

The study examines the early outcomes of new disclosure rules introduced in 2023 by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. These rules require publicly listed companies to include more detailed information in their annual reports about cybersecurity governance, risk management, and oversight. Analysing 3,440 Form 10-K filings from 2024, the researchers assessed how companies responded during the first full year of implementation, focusing on the newly introduced Item 1C disclosure section.

The findings show that companies did not simply shift existing language into a new section. Instead, many produced genuinely new and more structured descriptions of their cybersecurity practices. Firms were required to articulate their governance frameworks and clarify responsibilities in a way that had not been necessary before. This indicates that the regulation prompted real changes in how organisations document and communicate cybersecurity internally, rather than resulting in superficial compliance.

However, the extent and quality of these disclosures varied widely across companies. Differences could only be partially explained by factors such as company size, financial performance, or the type of auditor involved. Notably, whether a firm had previously experienced cyber incidents or operated in a highly digital environment did not strongly influence disclosure quality. This suggests that companies still retain considerable discretion in deciding how much and what kind of information to share.

Despite the increase in reporting, there was little evidence of a corresponding shift in market behaviour. Stock prices did not show consistent reactions, analysts did not significantly expand their discussion of cybersecurity issues, and investor attention to annual reports remained largely unchanged. This is somewhat unexpected given the widely recognised risks associated with cyber incidents, which can disrupt operations, expose sensitive data, and lead to substantial financial losses. The findings imply that investors may not yet be incorporating governance-level cybersecurity information into their valuation decisions.

Interviews conducted as part of the study suggest that the primary benefits of mandatory disclosure are being realised within firms themselves. The requirement has encouraged organisations to formalise and document their cybersecurity structures, processes, and decision-making practices more systematically. This internal focus aligns differently with regulatory approaches in other regions. In Europe, for example, frameworks such as the NIS2 Directive place greater emphasis on risk management responsibilities and internal accountability rather than on disclosures aimed directly at investors, highlighting a contrast in how cybersecurity governance is prioritised across jurisdictions.

More information: Elina Haapamäki et al, Mandatory cybersecurity disclosure: Early evidence from 10-K reports, International Journal of Accounting Information Systems. DOI: 10.1016/j.accinf.2026.100775

Journal information: International Journal of Accounting Information Systems Provided by University of Vaasa

AI uptake skewed toward the affluent, study highlights growing inequality risks

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The rapid spread of artificial intelligence (AI)—particularly as it becomes embedded in everyday tools and services—is giving rise to a new and distinct form of digital inequality.

This concern is highlighted by communication researcher Professor Sai Wang and colleagues at the Hong Kong Baptist University, who analysed data from more than 10,000 Americans to understand better how people engage with AI. Their findings, published in Information, Communication & Technology, point to widening gaps in awareness, familiarity and use of the technology across different social groups.

The study shows that individuals with higher levels of education or income are more likely to recognise AI in action, feel knowledgeable about it, and actively use it. The researchers define awareness as the ability to identify where AI is being used. At the same time, familiarity reflects a person’s perceived understanding of the technology, regardless of whether that knowledge is accurate. These differences mean that more advantaged groups are better positioned to benefit from AI.

Professor Wang stresses that gaps in awareness can have tangible consequences. If only certain groups understand how AI operates, they can use that knowledge to their advantage. For example, job applicants who know that employers rely on AI screening tools can tailor their applications accordingly, while those who lack this awareness may miss opportunities without realising why.

Awareness also shapes how individuals respond to the risks associated with AI. Those who are more informed may be better able to recognise misinformation, understand issues such as deepfakes, and navigate digital environments more critically. By contrast, individuals with lower awareness are more vulnerable to being misled or manipulated by AI-driven content.

Interestingly, the researchers found that perceived familiarity with AI was a stronger predictor of awareness than actual usage. This may be because many AI systems are seamlessly integrated into everyday platforms, making them less visible. For instance, recommendation algorithms on services such as Netflix and Spotify personalise content using AI, yet many users do not recognise these features as such.

This hidden presence of AI distinguishes emerging inequalities from traditional digital divides, which have focused on access, skills and outcomes. Because people often interact with AI without realising it, improving access alone is unlikely to close the gap. Instead, the researchers call for targeted efforts to improve AI literacy—through education, outreach and practical guidance—to help ensure that the benefits of these technologies are shared more equitably and do not further deepen existing social inequalities.

More information: Sai Wang et al, Socioeconomic disparities in AI awareness: examining the mediating roles of AI usage and familiarity, Information, Communication & Technology. DOI: 10.1080/1369118X.2026.2652505

Journal information: Information, Communication & Technology Provided by Taylor & Francis Group

Restrictions on Trade Secrets Could Weigh on Wages Near Retirement

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Policies designed to safeguard trade secrets and stimulate innovation may carry unintended consequences for workers later in their careers. A new study published in Labour Economics, led by researchers from Penn State, the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland and Colorado State University, finds that such measures can suppress wage growth over time and encourage firms to rely more heavily on automation rather than human labour.

“The policy is often framed as a way to protect innovation, but the data tell a different story,” said Bharadwaj Kannan, associate clinical professor of finance at Penn State’s Smeal College of Business. According to the study, younger workers may benefit initially through higher starting salaries, but this comes with a trade-off: slower wage progression in later years. At the same time, firms appear to be quietly shifting investment away from labour and towards capital-intensive production.

To better understand these dynamics, the researchers examined how companies that depend on trade secrets respond to policies that restrict labour mobility—meaning how easily employees can move between competing firms. Their analysis focused on the adoption of the inevitable disclosure doctrine (IDD). This legal principle allows employers to prevent workers from joining competitors if there is a risk that trade secrets could be disclosed, even without formal non-compete or non-disclosure agreements. Proponents argue that such policies strengthen research and development and support long-term firm growth.

The team analysed firm-level financial and accounting data drawn from the CRSP/Compustat Merged database, alongside industry-level measures of employment and capital investment from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Their dataset covered the period from 1977 to 2011 across all 50 U.S. states. Over that time, 21 states adopted the IDD at some point, while six later reversed course, leaving 15 states—including Pennsylvania—recognising the doctrine by the end of the study period.

The findings challenge the policy’s intended benefits. Rather than boosting research and development or overall firm expansion, the adoption of IDD was associated with a shift in compensation patterns and production strategies. Workers at the beginning of their careers tended to receive higher initial pay, but their wage growth slowed significantly as they aged, effectively redistributing earnings across the life course.

At the same time, firms increased their reliance on capital. Investment in equipment and machinery rose by 3.5%, while the capital-to-labour ratio increased by 5.5%, signalling a measurable tilt towards automation. Taken together, the results suggest that policies aimed at protecting intellectual assets may reshape labour markets in subtle but important ways, with long-term implications for earnings trajectories and the balance between human and machine work.

More information: Bharadwaj Kannan et al, Replacing labour with capital: Evidence from aggregate mobility shocks, Labour Economics. DOI: 10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102832

Journal information: Labour Economics Provided by Penn State

AI Delivers Best Results When Paired with Human Insight

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A new academic study suggests that artificial intelligence is most effective when used to enhance human thinking and decision-making rather than replace it. Published in the Journal of Knowledge Management, the research explores how AI and human intelligence can work together to improve how knowledge is created, interpreted, and shared across society.

The authors, from the University of East London, explain that while AI is highly effective at processing large volumes of information, identifying patterns, and generating insights, human involvement remains essential for interpreting results and making ethical, context-sensitive decisions. Drawing on findings from 90 studies published since 2015, the paper concludes that the strongest outcomes arise when AI’s speed and scale are combined with human creativity, critical thinking, and oversight—enhancing problem-solving across fields such as healthcare, education, management, and research.

The study also cautions against over-reliance on AI, stressing the need for clear safeguards to ensure systems are transparent, fair, and subject to human review, particularly in high-stakes environments. Co-author Dr Susan Akinwalere noted that the true promise of AI lies in helping people navigate complexity more efficiently, while leaving judgment, meaning, and responsibility firmly in human hands.

Researchers from the Royal Docks School of Business and Law argue that this human-centred approach can help organisations build stronger “knowledge ecosystems”. Rather than treating AI as a substitute for expertise, they recommend designing it as a collaborative partner that supports learning, innovation, and informed decision-making, with appropriate checks in place to ensure context, fairness, and integrity.

More information: Susan Akinwalere et al, The symbiotic roles of artificial intelligence and human intelligence in advancing knowledge ecosystem, Journal of Knowledge Management. DOI: 10.1108/JKM-03-2025-0362

Journal information: Journal of Knowledge Management Provided by University of East London

A Novel Scale for Assessing Evidence Use in Evidence-Based Management is Developed and Validated

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Organisations increasingly adopt evidence-based management to inform decision-making, yet empirical research examining how it is practised remains relatively limited. A new study addresses this gap by developing and validating a purpose-built measurement tool—the Evidence-Based Management Source Utilisation Scale (EBM-SUS). This scale is specifically tailored to management settings and captures the extent to which decision makers draw on four distinct sources of evidence.

The research, conducted by scholars from Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Malta, is published in the International Journal of Organisational Analysis. It contributes to a growing body of work seeking to operationalise and measure evidence-based practices beyond clinical or healthcare contexts.

“Although researchers have advanced understanding and highlighted the importance of evidence-based management, relatively few studies have examined how different sources of evidence are used in decision making,” says Denise M. Rousseau, professor of organisational behaviour and public policy at Carnegie Mellon’s Heinz College and a coauthor of the study. She notes that the research was designed to address this important gap in the literature.

Evidence-based management is widely recognised as a critical approach in organisational settings, strengthening decision-making through the integration of four foundational sources: scientific research, organisational data, professional expertise, and stakeholder perspectives. Each of these contributes unique insights, yet existing measurement tools often prioritise clinical forms of evidence and do not readily transfer to broader organisational contexts.

To address this limitation, the researchers developed the EBM-SUS. They evaluated it through two empirical studies involving senior leaders in the Maltese public service, including director generals, managers, and permanent secretaries. These roles involve responsibility for policy development, resource allocation, programme implementation, and both strategic and operational decision-making across ministries and government entities.

The first study used exploratory factor analysis to identify the scale’s underlying structure, while the second applied confirmatory factor analysis to validate the measurement model and examine its associations with traits such as risk aversion and conscientious decision making. The results indicate that the EBM-SUS demonstrates strong psychometric properties, supporting its reliability and validity as a tool for assessing how decision makers use multiple sources of evidence.

“Assessing how managers draw on each source—both individually and collectively—can enhance transparency, accountability, and effectiveness, while improving alignment between decisions and organisational goals,” explains Frank Bezzina of the University of Malta, a coauthor of the study. Vincent Cassar adds that the findings reinforce the value of evidence-based management as a framework for understanding decision-making dynamics, while also highlighting the EBM-SUS as a practical tool to support more evidence-informed organisational practices.

More information: Frank Bezzina et al, Evidence-based management in practice: measuring the use of four core sources of evidence, International Journal of Organizational Analysis. DOI: 10.1108/IJOA-11-2025-6185

Journal information: International Journal of Organizational Analysis Provided by Carnegie Mellon University

Why Cooperation Breaks Down Over Time, According to New Study

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A new study from Saïd Business School, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, and William & Mary suggests that cooperation does not simply fade in a slow, predictable way. Instead, it rises and falls in repeated cycles, driven more by shifting human behaviour than by purely strategic thinking or financial pressures. The findings challenge long-standing assumptions about how and why people choose to work together over time.

“In everyday life, people often face a simple decision: contribute their share or let someone else carry the load,” explains Nicholas Sabin, the study’s first author and an Associate Professor of Behavioral Science at the Universidad de Santiago de Chile. He notes that the research offers new insight into why cooperation is so fragile, even when it benefits everyone involved. More importantly, it may help identify ways to sustain cooperative behaviour over longer periods, particularly in situations where ongoing collaboration is essential.

The research draws on a five-year field study conducted with a microfinance institution in Sierra Leone, tracking more than 47,000 repayment transactions from over 7,000 borrowers. Participants operated within a joint-liability lending system, meaning that each group had to ensure full repayment of its loan each month collectively. If even one member failed to contribute, the entire group risked losing access to future credit. This real-world setting provided a rare opportunity to observe cooperation under meaningful economic and social stakes.

According to co-author David Klinowski, an Assistant Professor of Economics at William & Mary, group lending offers an unusually realistic environment for studying cooperation. Unlike laboratory experiments, where outcomes are often abstract or low-stakes, the consequences here are tangible and immediate. Borrowers who fail to cooperate can face serious financial and social repercussions, making their decisions more reflective of real-life behaviour rather than controlled experimental responses.

The researchers observed a consistent pattern across borrower groups. Cooperation tended to start at high levels, as participants were motivated and attentive to their shared responsibilities. Over time, however, this commitment gradually weakened as individuals became fatigued, less vigilant, or more tempted to rely on others’ efforts. Each time a new loan cycle began, cooperation surged again, boosted by renewed awareness of the consequences of failing to contribute. Yet with each cycle, this rebound became shorter-lived, and cooperation declined more quickly than before. The authors describe this repeating pattern of erosion and recovery as a “punctuated decline.”

These findings run counter to traditional theories that frame declining cooperation as a result of rational learning or strategic adjustment. Instead, the study points to behavioural fatigue and shifting motivation as the primary drivers. Interviews with microfinance clients and staff reinforced this interpretation, revealing how emotions, habits, and social dynamics shape decisions to cooperate or defect. The implications extend far beyond lending groups. Whether in healthcare decisions like vaccination, civic participation such as voting, or international agreements between countries, sustained cooperation depends not only on incentives but on maintaining motivation. The researchers suggest that organisations can support long-term cooperation by introducing periodic resets, fostering intrinsic motivation, and designing systems that make cooperative behaviour easier to sustain over time.

More information: Nicholas Sabin et al, Punctuated decline of human cooperation, Nature. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-026-10380-3

Journal information: Nature Provided by University of Oxford

98% of Sustainability Messaging in Meat and Dairy Industry Flagged as Potential Greenwashing

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The overwhelming majority of environmental claims made by the animal agriculture sector amount to misleading “greenwashing”, often built on vague commitments or distant projections, according to a study published on April 22, 2026, in PLOS Climate. The research was led by Maya Bach and Jennifer Jacquet from the University of Miami, alongside their collaborators.

The meat and dairy sector is responsible for a substantial share of global emissions, contributing 57% of emissions from food production and at least 16.5% of total greenhouse gas output worldwide. In this analysis, the researchers examined environmental messaging from 33 of the world’s largest meat and dairy corporations to determine whether their claims presented credible, actionable pathways for reducing environmental harm—or whether they instead fell into the category of greenwashing, defined as deceptive or intentionally misleading communication.

In total, the team reviewed 1,233 environmental claims sourced from publicly available sustainability reports and company websites, covering the period from 2021 to 2024. Of these, 841 claims (68%) were classified as climate-related, meaning they addressed greenhouse gas emissions or climate impacts either directly or indirectly. This emphasis suggests that climate change has become the dominant lens through which companies frame their sustainability narratives.

A significant portion of these claims—467 (38%)—consisted of unverifiable future-oriented statements, such as pledges to achieve carbon neutrality or restore large volumes of water by 2030. Despite the volume of claims, supporting evidence was limited: only 356 (29%) were backed by company-provided documentation, and just three claims cited peer-reviewed scientific evidence, two of which related to climate issues. Meanwhile, the number of companies committing to net-zero targets has grown, rising from four in 2020 to 17 in the current analysis. However, these commitments appear to depend largely on carbon offsetting rather than direct emissions reductions.

Using an established framework to evaluate greenwashing, the authors concluded that 98% of the claims—1,213 in total—could be classified as misleading. Examples include long-term pledges such as achieving “net climate-neutral dairy” by 2050, which often lack clear implementation strategies or measurable benchmarks.

The researchers emphasise that such patterns are not unique to the meat and dairy industry, though the sector’s environmental footprint makes the implications particularly significant. According to Bach, greenwashing is widespread across corporate sustainability reporting in this space, creating a false impression of meaningful climate progress. She warns that such messaging can mislead consumers, shape public perception, and ultimately weaken pressure on policymakers to enact substantive climate policies.

Jacquet adds that while it is unsurprising for meat and dairy companies to focus on climate issues—given the relatively high emissions associated with animal-based foods—the lack of concrete evidence and investment behind many of these claims raises concerns. When sustainability messaging is dominated by vague promises rather than measurable action, it risks functioning more as a public relations strategy than a genuine commitment to environmental stewardship.

More information: Maya Bach et al, Environmental claims, climate promises, and ‘greenwashing’ by meat and dairy companies, PLOS Climate. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pclm.0000773

Journal information: PLOS Climate Provided by PLOS